Wandel währungspolitischer Arrangements
JOURNAL ARTICLE
Cite JOURNAL ARTICLE
Style
Format
Wandel währungspolitischer Arrangements
Was tragen Multinationale Unternehmungen dazu bei?
Credit and Capital Markets – Kredit und Kapital, Vol. 25 (1992), Iss. 2 : pp. 211–232
1 Citations (CrossRef)
Additional Information
Article Details
Author Details
Norbert Berthold, Würzburg
Cited By
-
Grundlagen der Wirtschaftspolitik
Internationale Währungs- und Handelsordnung
2005
https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27341-7_7 [Citations: 0]
References
-
Aliber, R. Z. (1976): The Firm under Pegged and Floating Exchange Rates, in: Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 78 (1976), S.309 - 322.
Google Scholar -
Aliber, R. Z. (1978a): Exchange Risk and Corporate International Finance. London u.a. 1978.
Google Scholar -
Aliber, R. Z. (1978b): The Integration of National Financial Markets: A Review of Theory and Findings, in: Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 114 (1978), S. 448 - 479.
Google Scholar -
Arndt, H. (1975): Die wirtschaftliche Macht der multinationalen Unternehmen, in: Arndt, E. u.a. (Hrsg.), Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Wirtschaft ohne Dogma. Festgabe für H.-D. Ortlieb, Tübingen 1975, S.315 - 330.
Google Scholar -
Berthold, N. (1981): Multinationale Unternehmungen und nationale Währungspolitik. Freiburg 1981.
Google Scholar -
Berthold, N. (1990): Internationale währungspolitische Arrangements Ökonomische und politökonomische Aspekte, in: Kredit und Kapital, 23 (1990), S.437 - 467.
Google Scholar -
Boarman, P. M. (1975): Multinational Firms and the International Monetary System, in: Boarman, P. M. und Schollhammer, H. (Hrsg.), Relations in an International Context. New York u.a. 1975, S.41 - 49.
Google Scholar -
Brooke, M. Z. und Remmers, H. L. (1970): The Strategy of Multinational Enterprise. Organisation and Finance. London 1970.
Google Scholar -
Bryant, R. C. (1987): International Financial Intermediation. Washington, D. C. 1987.
Google Scholar -
Buiter, W. (1986): Borrowing to Defend the Exchange Rate and the Timing and Magnitude of Speculative Attacks. NBER-Working Paper 1844. Cambridge, MA 1986.
Google Scholar -
Coase, R. H. (1937): The Nature of the Firm, in: Economica, 4 (1937), S.386 - 405.
Google Scholar -
Dornbusch, R. (1976): Expectations and Exchange Rate Dynamics, in: Journal of Political Economy, 84 (1976), S.1161 - 1174.
Google Scholar -
Dornbusch, R. und Frankel, J. (1988): The Flexible Exchange Rate System: Experience and Alternatives, in: Borner, S. (Hrsg.), International Finance and Trade in a Polycentric World. Houndsmills u.a. 1988, S.151 - 197.
Google Scholar -
Driffill, J. (1988): The Stability and Substainability of the European Monetary System with Perfect Capital Markets, in: Giavazzi, F. u.a. (Hrsg.), The European Monetary System. Cambridge u.a. 1988, S.211 - 228.
Google Scholar -
Ethier, W. (1986): The Multinational Firm, in: Quarterly Journal of Economics, 101 (1986), 805 - 833.
Google Scholar -
Farell, J. (1987): Information and the Coase Theorem, in: Economic Perspectives, 1 (1987), S.113 - 129.
Google Scholar -
Fieleke, N. S. (1979): Foreign-Exchange Speculation by U.S. Firms: Some New Evidence, in: New England Economic Review, (März/April 1979), S.5 - 17.
Google Scholar -
Flood, R. und Garber, P. (1984): Collapsing Exchange Rate Regimes: Some Linear Examples, in: Journal of International Economics, 17 (1984), S.1 - 13.
Google Scholar -
Folks, W. R. (1972): Decision Analysis for Exchange Management, in: Financial Management, 1 (Winter 1972), S.101 - 112.
Google Scholar -
Frenkel, J. A. (1985): Commentary on „Causes of Appreciation and Volatility of the Dollar“, in: The U.S. Dollar Recent Developments, Outlook, and Policy Options. A Symposium Sponsored by the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City. Jackson Hole, Wyoming, August 21 - 23, 1985, S. 53 - 63.
Google Scholar -
Frenkel, J. A. und Levich, R. M. (1975): Covered Interest Arbitrage: Unexploited Profits?, in: Journal of Political Economy, 82 (1975), S.325 - 338.
Google Scholar -
Frenkel, J. und Goldstein, M. (1988), Fundamental Issues in the Functioning of the International Monetary System, in: Dräger, Ch. u.a. (Hrsg.), The International Monetary System and Economic Development. Baden-Baden 1988, S.223 - 238.
Google Scholar -
Frey, B. S. und Eichenberger, R. (1989): Comment, in: Economic Perspectives, 3 (1989), S.181 - 183.
Google Scholar -
Friedman, M. (1953): The Case for Flexible Exchange Rates, in: Friedman, M. Essays in Positiv Economics. Chicago 1953, S. 157 - 203.
Google Scholar -
Giavazzi, F. und Giovannini, A. (1986): The EMS and the Dollar, in: Economic Policy, 2 (1986), S. 456 - 485.
Google Scholar -
Giavazzi, F. und Giovannini, A. (1989): Limiting Exchange Rate Flexibility. The European Monetary System. Cambridge, MA u.a. 1989.
Google Scholar -
Giovannini, A. (1988): How do Fixed-Exchange-Rates Regimes Work: The
Google Scholar -
Evidence from the Gold Standard, Bretton Wood and the EMS. NBER-Working Paper 2766. Cambridge, MA 1988.
Google Scholar -
Gloystein P. und Köhler, K. (1975): Die Bedeutung Multinationaler Unternehmen für die deutsche Währungpolitik, in: Wirtschaftsdienst, 55 (1975), S.141 - 145.
Google Scholar -
Gros, D. (1988): Dual Exchange Rates in the Presence of Incomplete
Google Scholar -
Market Separation, in: IMF Staff Papers, 35 (1988), S.437 - 460.
Google Scholar -
Gros, D. (1989): The Effectiveness of Capital Controls, in: IMF Staff Papers, 36 (1989), S.621 -642.
Google Scholar -
Jacque, L. L. (1978): Management of Foreign Exchange Risk: Theory and Praxis. Lexington (Mass.) u.a. 1978.
Google Scholar -
Krugman, P. (1979): A Model of Balance-of-Payments Crisis, in: Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 11 (1979), S.311 - 325.
Google Scholar -
Lall, S. (1973): Transfer-pricing by Multinational Manufactoring Firms, in: Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 35 (1973), S.173 - 195.
Google Scholar -
Lenel, H. O. (1976): Zur Problematik der multinationalen Unternehmen, in: ORDO, 27 (1976), S.183 - 222.
Google Scholar -
Lessard, D. R. (1979): Transfer Prices, Taxes, and Financial Markets: Implications of International Financial Tranfers within the Multinational Corperation, in: R. G. Hawkins (Hrsg.), Research in International Business and Finance. the Economic Effects of Multinational Corperations, Bd. 1. Greenwich (Conn.) 1979, S.101 - 135.
Google Scholar -
Loef, H.-E. (1988): Variabilität der Wechselkurse als Problem der Währungspolitik, in: Issing, O. (Hrsg.), Wechselkursstabilisierung, EWS und Weltwährungssystem. Hamburg 1988, S.123 - 159.
Google Scholar -
Marston, R. (1988): Exchange Rate Policy Reconsidered, in: Feldstein, M. (Hrsg.), International Economic Cooperation. Chicago u.a. 1988, S.79 - 136.
Google Scholar -
Monti, M. (1987): Integration of Financial Markets in Europe, in: Giersch, H. (Hrsg.), Free Trade in the World Economy: Towards an Opening of Markets. Tübingen 1987, S.492 - 503.
Google Scholar -
Naumann-Etienne, R. (1974): A Framework for Financial Decisions in Multinational Corperations Summary of Recent Research, in: Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 9 (1974), S.859 - 874.
Google Scholar -
Obstfeld, M. (1984): Balance-of-Payments Crisis and Devaluation, in: Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 16 (1984), S.208 - 217.
Google Scholar -
Obstfeld, M. (1988a): The Effectiveness of Foreign-Exchange Interventions: Recent Experience. NBER-Working Paper 2796. Cambridge, MA 1988.
Google Scholar -
Obstfeld, M. (1988b): Competitiveness, Realigment, and Speculation: The Role of Financial Markets, in: Giavazzi, F. u.a. (Hrsg.), The European Monetary System. Cambrige u.a. 1988, S. 232 - 247.
Google Scholar -
Olson, M. (1982): The Rise and Decline of Nations. New Haven 1982. - Padoa-Schioppa, T. (1988): The European Monetary System: A Longterm View, in: Giavazzi, F. u.a. (Arsg.), The European Monetary System. Cambridge u.a. 1988, S. 369 - 384.
Google Scholar -
Plasschaert, S. (1979): Transfer Pricing and Multinational Corporations: An Overview of Concepts, Mechanism and Regulations. Westmead u.a. 1979.
Google Scholar -
Prindl, A. (1976): Foreign Exchange Risk. London u.a. 1976.
Google Scholar -
Robbins, S. M. und Stobaugh, R. B., Financing Foreign Affiliates, in: Financial Management, 1 (Winter 1973), S. 55 - 65.
Google Scholar -
Rodriguez, R. M. (1974): Management of Foreign Exchange Risk in the US-Multinationals, in: Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 9 (1974), S. 849 - 857.
Google Scholar -
Rometsch, S. (1974): Multinational Corporations and National Monetary and Financial Policy, in: Wilson, J. S. G. und Scheffers, C. F. (Hrsg.), Multinational Enterprise - Financial and Monetary Aspects. Leiden 1974, S. 202 - 211.
Google Scholar -
Rugman, A. M. (1980): Internalization as a General Theory of Foreign Direct Investment: A Reappraisal of the Literature, in: Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 116 (1980), S. 365 - 379.
Google Scholar -
Rugman, A. M. (1981): Inside the Multinationals. New York 1981.
Google Scholar -
Rugman, A. M. (1985): Internalization Is Still a General Theory of Foreign Direct Investment, in: Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 121 (1985), S. 570 - 575.
Google Scholar -
Rugman, A. M., Lecraw, D. J. und Booth, L. D. (1985): International Business. Firm and Environment. New York u.a. 1985.
Google Scholar -
Rutenberg, D. P. (1970): Maneuvering Liquid Assets in a Multinational Company: Formulation and Deterministic Solution Procedures, in: Management Science, 16 (1970), S. 671-684.
Google Scholar -
Streit, M. E. (1987): Economic Order and Public Policy - Market, Constitution and the Welfare State, in: Pethig, R. und Schlieper, U. (Hrsg.), Efficiency, Institutions, and Economic Policy. Berlin u.a. 1987, S.1 - 21.
Google Scholar -
Tobin, J. (1982): A Proposal for International Monetary Reform, in: Tobin, J., Essays in Economics: Theory and Policy. Cambridge, MA 1982, S. 488 - 494.
Google Scholar -
United States Senat, Committee on Finance (1973): Implications of Multinational Firms for World Trade and Investment and for US Trade and Labor, Washington D.C. 1973.
Google Scholar -
Vaubel, R. (1988): Monetary integration theory, in: Zis, G. u.a., International economics. London u.a. 1988, S. 223 - 262.
Google Scholar -
Vosgerau, H.-J. (1990): Multinationalisierung und Demultionationalisierung der Produktion, in: Jahrbuch für Neue Politische Ökonomie, 9 (1990), S. 35-49.
Google Scholar -
Williamson, O. E. (1975): Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Antitrust Implications: A Study in the Economics of Internal Organizations. New York 1975.
Google Scholar -
Willms, M. (1988): Wechselkursstabilisierung durch währungspolitische Kooperation?, in: Issing, O. (Hrsg.), Wechselkursstabilisierung, EWS und Weltwährungssystem. Hamburg 1988, S. 229 -260.
Google Scholar -
Aliber, R. Z. (1976): The Firm under Pegged and Floating Exchange Rates, in: Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 78 (1976), S.309 – 322.
Google Scholar -
Aliber, R. Z. (1978a): Exchange Risk and Corporate International Finance. London u.a. 1978.
Google Scholar -
Aliber, R. Z. (1978b): The Integration of National Financial Markets: A Review of Theory and Findings, in: Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 114 (1978), S. 448 – 479.
Google Scholar -
Arndt, H. (1975): Die wirtschaftliche Macht der multinationalen Unternehmen, in: Arndt, E. u.a. (Hrsg.), Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Wirtschaft ohne Dogma. Festgabe für H.-D. Ortlieb, Tübingen 1975, S.315 – 330.
Google Scholar -
Berthold, N. (1981): Multinationale Unternehmungen und nationale Währungspolitik. Freiburg 1981.
Google Scholar -
Berthold, N. (1990): Internationale währungspolitische Arrangements Ökonomische und politökonomische Aspekte, in: Kredit und Kapital, 23 (1990), S.437 – 467.
Google Scholar -
Boarman, P. M. (1975): Multinational Firms and the International Monetary System, in: Boarman, P. M. und Schollhammer, H. (Hrsg.), Relations in an International Context. New York u.a. 1975, S.41 – 49.
Google Scholar -
Brooke, M. Z. und Remmers, H. L. (1970): The Strategy of Multinational Enterprise. Organisation and Finance. London 1970.
Google Scholar -
Bryant, R. C. (1987): International Financial Intermediation. Washington, D. C. 1987.
Google Scholar -
Buiter, W. (1986): Borrowing to Defend the Exchange Rate and the Timing and Magnitude of Speculative Attacks. NBER-Working Paper 1844. Cambridge, MA 1986.
Google Scholar -
Coase, R. H. (1937): The Nature of the Firm, in: Economica, 4 (1937), S.386 – 405.
Google Scholar -
Dornbusch, R. (1976): Expectations and Exchange Rate Dynamics, in: Journal of Political Economy, 84 (1976), S.1161 – 1174.
Google Scholar -
Dornbusch, R. und Frankel, J. (1988): The Flexible Exchange Rate System: Experience and Alternatives, in: Borner, S. (Hrsg.), International Finance and Trade in a Polycentric World. Houndsmills u.a. 1988, S.151 – 197.
Google Scholar -
Driffill, J. (1988): The Stability and Substainability of the European Monetary System with Perfect Capital Markets, in: Giavazzi, F. u.a. (Hrsg.), The European Monetary System. Cambridge u.a. 1988, S.211 – 228.
Google Scholar -
Ethier, W. (1986): The Multinational Firm, in: Quarterly Journal of Economics, 101 (1986), 805 – 833.
Google Scholar -
Farell, J. (1987): Information and the Coase Theorem, in: Economic Perspectives, 1 (1987), S.113 – 129.
Google Scholar -
Fieleke, N. S. (1979): Foreign-Exchange Speculation by U.S. Firms: Some New Evidence, in: New England Economic Review, (März/April 1979), S.5 – 17.
Google Scholar -
Flood, R. und Garber, P. (1984): Collapsing Exchange Rate Regimes: Some Linear Examples, in: Journal of International Economics, 17 (1984), S.1 – 13.
Google Scholar -
Folks, W. R. (1972): Decision Analysis for Exchange Management, in: Financial Management, 1 (Winter 1972), S.101 – 112.
Google Scholar -
Frenkel, J. A. (1985): Commentary on „Causes of Appreciation and Volatility of the Dollar“, in: The U.S. Dollar Recent Developments, Outlook, and Policy Options. A Symposium Sponsored by the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City. Jackson Hole, Wyoming, August 21 – 23, 1985, S. 53 – 63.
Google Scholar -
Frenkel, J. A. und Levich, R. M. (1975): Covered Interest Arbitrage: Unexploited Profits?, in: Journal of Political Economy, 82 (1975), S.325 – 338.
Google Scholar -
Frenkel, J. und Goldstein, M. (1988), Fundamental Issues in the Functioning of the International Monetary System, in: Dräger, Ch. u.a. (Hrsg.), The International Monetary System and Economic Development. Baden-Baden 1988, S.223 – 238.
Google Scholar -
Frey, B. S. und Eichenberger, R. (1989): Comment, in: Economic Perspectives, 3 (1989), S.181 – 183.
Google Scholar -
Friedman, M. (1953): The Case for Flexible Exchange Rates, in: Friedman, M. Essays in Positiv Economics. Chicago 1953, S. 157 – 203.
Google Scholar -
Giavazzi, F. und Giovannini, A. (1986): The EMS and the Dollar, in: Economic Policy, 2 (1986), S. 456 – 485.
Google Scholar -
Giavazzi, F. und Giovannini, A. (1989): Limiting Exchange Rate Flexibility. The European Monetary System. Cambridge, MA u.a. 1989.
Google Scholar -
Giovannini, A. (1988): How do Fixed-Exchange-Rates Regimes Work: The
Google Scholar -
Evidence from the Gold Standard, Bretton Wood and the EMS. NBER-Working Paper 2766. Cambridge, MA 1988.
Google Scholar -
Gloystein P. und Köhler, K. (1975): Die Bedeutung Multinationaler Unternehmen für die deutsche Währungpolitik, in: Wirtschaftsdienst, 55 (1975), S.141 – 145.
Google Scholar -
Gros, D. (1988): Dual Exchange Rates in the Presence of Incomplete
Google Scholar -
Market Separation, in: IMF Staff Papers, 35 (1988), S.437 – 460.
Google Scholar -
Gros, D. (1989): The Effectiveness of Capital Controls, in: IMF Staff Papers, 36 (1989), S.621 -642.
Google Scholar -
Jacque, L. L. (1978): Management of Foreign Exchange Risk: Theory and Praxis. Lexington (Mass.) u.a. 1978.
Google Scholar -
Krugman, P. (1979): A Model of Balance-of-Payments Crisis, in: Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 11 (1979), S.311 – 325.
Google Scholar -
Lall, S. (1973): Transfer-pricing by Multinational Manufactoring Firms, in: Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 35 (1973), S.173 – 195.
Google Scholar -
Lenel, H. O. (1976): Zur Problematik der multinationalen Unternehmen, in: ORDO, 27 (1976), S.183 – 222.
Google Scholar -
Lessard, D. R. (1979): Transfer Prices, Taxes, and Financial Markets: Implications of International Financial Tranfers within the Multinational Corperation, in: R. G. Hawkins (Hrsg.), Research in International Business and Finance. the Economic Effects of Multinational Corperations, Bd. 1. Greenwich (Conn.) 1979, S.101 – 135.
Google Scholar -
Loef, H.-E. (1988): Variabilität der Wechselkurse als Problem der Währungspolitik, in: Issing, O. (Hrsg.), Wechselkursstabilisierung, EWS und Weltwährungssystem. Hamburg 1988, S.123 – 159.
Google Scholar -
Marston, R. (1988): Exchange Rate Policy Reconsidered, in: Feldstein, M. (Hrsg.), International Economic Cooperation. Chicago u.a. 1988, S.79 – 136.
Google Scholar -
Monti, M. (1987): Integration of Financial Markets in Europe, in: Giersch, H. (Hrsg.), Free Trade in the World Economy: Towards an Opening of Markets. Tübingen 1987, S.492 – 503.
Google Scholar -
Naumann-Etienne, R. (1974): A Framework for Financial Decisions in Multinational Corperations Summary of Recent Research, in: Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 9 (1974), S.859 – 874.
Google Scholar -
Obstfeld, M. (1984): Balance-of-Payments Crisis and Devaluation, in: Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 16 (1984), S.208 – 217.
Google Scholar -
Obstfeld, M. (1988a): The Effectiveness of Foreign-Exchange Interventions: Recent Experience. NBER-Working Paper 2796. Cambridge, MA 1988.
Google Scholar -
Obstfeld, M. (1988b): Competitiveness, Realigment, and Speculation: The Role of Financial Markets, in: Giavazzi, F. u.a. (Hrsg.), The European Monetary System. Cambrige u.a. 1988, S. 232 – 247.
Google Scholar -
Olson, M. (1982): The Rise and Decline of Nations. New Haven 1982. – Padoa-Schioppa, T. (1988): The European Monetary System: A Longterm View, in: Giavazzi, F. u.a. (Arsg.), The European Monetary System. Cambridge u.a. 1988, S. 369 – 384.
Google Scholar -
Plasschaert, S. (1979): Transfer Pricing and Multinational Corporations: An Overview of Concepts, Mechanism and Regulations. Westmead u.a. 1979.
Google Scholar -
Prindl, A. (1976): Foreign Exchange Risk. London u.a. 1976.
Google Scholar -
Robbins, S. M. und Stobaugh, R. B., Financing Foreign Affiliates, in: Financial Management, 1 (Winter 1973), S. 55 – 65.
Google Scholar -
Rodriguez, R. M. (1974): Management of Foreign Exchange Risk in the US-Multinationals, in: Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 9 (1974), S. 849 – 857.
Google Scholar -
Rometsch, S. (1974): Multinational Corporations and National Monetary and Financial Policy, in: Wilson, J. S. G. und Scheffers, C. F. (Hrsg.), Multinational Enterprise – Financial and Monetary Aspects. Leiden 1974, S. 202 – 211.
Google Scholar -
Rugman, A. M. (1980): Internalization as a General Theory of Foreign Direct Investment: A Reappraisal of the Literature, in: Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 116 (1980), S. 365 – 379.
Google Scholar -
Rugman, A. M. (1981): Inside the Multinationals. New York 1981.
Google Scholar -
Rugman, A. M. (1985): Internalization Is Still a General Theory of Foreign Direct Investment, in: Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 121 (1985), S. 570 – 575.
Google Scholar -
Rugman, A. M., Lecraw, D. J. und Booth, L. D. (1985): International Business. Firm and Environment. New York u.a. 1985.
Google Scholar -
Rutenberg, D. P. (1970): Maneuvering Liquid Assets in a Multinational Company: Formulation and Deterministic Solution Procedures, in: Management Science, 16 (1970), S. 671-684.
Google Scholar -
Streit, M. E. (1987): Economic Order and Public Policy – Market, Constitution and the Welfare State, in: Pethig, R. und Schlieper, U. (Hrsg.), Efficiency, Institutions, and Economic Policy. Berlin u.a. 1987, S.1 – 21.
Google Scholar -
Tobin, J. (1982): A Proposal for International Monetary Reform, in: Tobin, J., Essays in Economics: Theory and Policy. Cambridge, MA 1982, S. 488 – 494.
Google Scholar -
United States Senat, Committee on Finance (1973): Implications of Multinational Firms for World Trade and Investment and for US Trade and Labor, Washington D.C. 1973.
Google Scholar -
Vaubel, R. (1988): Monetary integration theory, in: Zis, G. u.a., International economics. London u.a. 1988, S. 223 – 262.
Google Scholar -
Vosgerau, H.-J. (1990): Multinationalisierung und Demultionationalisierung der Produktion, in: Jahrbuch für Neue Politische Ökonomie, 9 (1990), S. 35-49.
Google Scholar -
Williamson, O. E. (1975): Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Antitrust Implications: A Study in the Economics of Internal Organizations. New York 1975.
Google Scholar -
Willms, M. (1988): Wechselkursstabilisierung durch währungspolitische Kooperation?, in: Issing, O. (Hrsg.), Wechselkursstabilisierung, EWS und Weltwährungssystem. Hamburg 1988, S. 229 -260.
Google Scholar
Abstract
Changes in Monetary Policy Arrangements – what do Multinational Enterprises contribute thereto?
A preference for nominally more stable exchange rates has again been observed worldwide for some time. However, in systems of fixed exchange rates the conflicting monetary policy targets on account of imperfect political markets are removed for the most part not by means adequate to the causes, but by dirigist governmental interventions into the international financial markets. The possibilities multinational enterprises have for handling financial transactions via internal markets as well are helpful in overcoming state-erected barriers. Forced speculation ultimately contributes to a collapse of the inefficient monetary system and to a more efficient system of flexible exchange rates being adopted.