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The Contribution of the Special Court for Sierra Leone to the Development of International Humanitarian Law

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Njikam, O. (2013). The Contribution of the Special Court for Sierra Leone to the Development of International Humanitarian Law. Duncker & Humblot. https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-53962-8
Njikam, Ousman. The Contribution of the Special Court for Sierra Leone to the Development of International Humanitarian Law. Duncker & Humblot, 2013. Book. https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-53962-8
Njikam, O (2013): The Contribution of the Special Court for Sierra Leone to the Development of International Humanitarian Law, Duncker & Humblot, [online] https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-53962-8

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The Contribution of the Special Court for Sierra Leone to the Development of International Humanitarian Law

Njikam, Ousman

Beiträge zum Internationalen und Europäischen Strafrecht / Studies in International and European Criminal Law and Procedure, Vol. 18

(2013)

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About The Author

Ousman Njikam studierte Rechtswissenschaften in Dschang (Kamerun), Teramo (Italien) und Göttingen mit den Schwerpunkten Strafrecht, Völkerrecht und Völkerstrafrecht. Anschließend arbeitete er als Praktikant bei Interpol in Frankreich. Von 2006 bis 2008 war er als wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter am Lehrstuhl von RiLG Prof. Dr. Kai Ambos an der Universität Göttingen beschäftigt. Im Anschluss an seinen Magisterabschluss promovierte er an der Universität Göttingen. Von 2008 bis 2009 arbeitete er bei der Staatsanwaltschaft des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofs in Den Haag. Seit April 2009 ist er Associate Legal Officer in den Kammern beim Internationalen Strafgerichtshof für das ehemalige Jugoslawien in Den Haag.

Abstract

The Special Court marked a new approach by the international community to violations of international humanitarian law. Its mode of creation $ai.e.$z through an agreement between the UN and the Government of Sierra Leone - as compared to the UN $aad hoc$z Tribunals that were established pursuant to Chapter VII of the UN Charter - was a particularity of the Court. It is the only international court that possesses concurrent, primary and complimentary jurisdiction. The objective of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the contribution of the Special Court to the development of international humanitarian law. Similar to its predecessors ($aad hoc$z Tribunals), the Special Court consolidated the principle under international law of individual criminal responsibility.

Ousman Njikam evaluates the Special Court's mandate to »prosecute those who ›bear the greatest responsibility‹« as being in itself a contribution to the development of international humanitarian law since the ICTY and ICTR at the time of their inception did not have this limitation $arationae personae / prosecutorial discretion.$z

The author assesses some of the interesting and challenging issues dealt with such as the recruitment of child soldiers, amnesty for international crimes, head of state immunity and the crime of forced marriage. He concludes that the Special Court contributed albeit to a limited extent to the development of international humanitarian law.
The Special Court marked a new approach by the international community to violations of international humanitarian law. Its mode of creation $ai.e.$z through an agreement between the UN and the Government of Sierra Leone - as compared to the UN $aad hoc$z Tribunals that were established pursuant to Chapter VII of the UN Charter - was a particularity of the Court. It is the only international court that possesses concurrent, primary and complimentary jurisdiction. The objective of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the contribution of the Special Court to the development of international humanitarian law. Similar to its predecessors ($aad hoc$z Tribunals), the Special Court consolidated the principle under international law of individual criminal responsibility.

Ousman Njikam evaluates the Special Court's mandate to »prosecute those who ›bear the greatest responsibility‹« as being in itself a contribution to the development of international humanitarian law since the ICTY and ICTR at the time of their inception did not have this limitation $arationae personae / prosecutorial discretion.$z

The author assesses some of the interesting and challenging issues dealt with such as the recruitment of child soldiers, amnesty for international crimes, head of state immunity and the crime of forced marriage. He concludes that the Special Court contributed albeit to a limited extent to the development of international humanitarian law.

Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Foreword 5
Preface 7
Table of Contents 9
Abbreviations 17
Chapter 1: Introduction 23
Chapter 2: Politico-Historical Context of Sierra Leone priorto during the Conflict 34
I. Pre-Colonial Phase 34
II. Post-Colonial Phase 35
III. The Peace Settlements 37
IV. The Parties to the Conflict 39
1. The Republic of Sierra Leone Military Forces and Assimilated 39
a) Republic of Sierra Leone Military Forces 39
b) The Armed Forces Revolutionary Council 39
2. The Revolutionary United Front 40
3. The National Patriotic Front for Liberia 40
4. The Civil Defence Force 41
5. Private Military Companies 42
6. [International] Peacekeeping Forces 43
Chapter 3: Objective, Establishment, Jurisdiction and Organization of the Special Court 45
I. The Objective / Aim of the Special Court 45
1. Political Objective 45
2. Humanitarian Objective 46
3. Legal Objective 48
II. Establishment 50
III. Organization of the Special Court 52
1. The Chambers 54
2. The Office of the Prosecutor 57
3. The Registry 59
IV. Jurisdiction (Concurrent, Primary and Complementary) 62
1. General Remarks 62
a) Genuine Unwillingness or Inability of Sending State 67
b) Security Council Authorization 69
c) Security Council Authorization based on any State Proposal 69
2. Substantive Jurisdiction (rationae materiae) 70
a) Crimes against Humanity 71
b) Violations of Article 3 Common to the Geneva Conventions and of AP II 72
c) Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law 73
d) Crimes under Sierra Leonean Law 74
3. Personal Jurisdiction (rationae personae) 74
4. Temporal Jurisdiction (rationae temporis) 80
5. Territorial Jurisdiction 81
6. The Cases before the Special Court 81
7. Conclusion 85
Chapter 4: The Special Court’s Case on Law Crimes against Humanity 86
I. Notion and Development of Crimes against Humanity 86
II. The Special Court’s Definition and Rationale of Crimes against Humanity 89
III. The Contextual Elements (Part of a Widespread or Systematic Attack against any Civilian Population) 90
1. A widespread or Systematic Attack 91
a) The Word Attack 91
b) The Phrase Widespread or Systematic 94
2. Any Civilian Population 97
3. ‚Part of‘ 100
IV. The Mental Element (mens rea) 101
1. The Discriminatory Element 102
V. The Elements of the Acts Enumerated in Article 2 SCSL Statute 102
1. Murder 102
2. Extermination 104
3. Enslavement 107
4. Deportation 111
5. Imprisonment 113
6. Torture 114
7. Rape, Sexual Slavery, Enforced Prostitution, Forced Pregnancy and any other Form of Sexual Violence 117
a) Rape 118
aa) The Characterization of Rape in International Criminal Law 119
b) Sexual Slavery 123
aa) Substantive Elements (actus reus) 125
bb) Mental Element (mens rea) 126
c) Enforced Prostitution 127
d) Forced Pregnancy 127
e) Other Forms of Sexual Violence 129
8. Persecution on Political, Racial and Religious Grounds 130
9. Other Inhumane Acts 131
VI. Conclusion 134
Chapter 5: The Special Court’s Case Law on War Crimes 136
I. The Notion of War Crimes 136
II. The Regulation of International and Non-international Armed Conflicts 137
III. The Applicability of Article 3 of the SCSL Statute 144
IV. The Nature of the Conflict in Sierra Leone 145
1. International or Non-international Armed Conflict? 146
a) General Remarks 146
b) Special Court Jurisprudence 148
2. The Impact of the ECOMOG and UNAMSIL Intervention 153
a) ECOMOG Intervention 153
b) UNAMSIL Intervention 157
3. The Involvement of Foreign Mercenaries 158
4. The British Intervention 159
5. Evaluation of Special Court Characterization of the Nature of the Conflict in Sierra Leone 160
V. Temporal and Territorial Applicability of Common Article 3 and AP II 161
VI. Nexus to Armed Conflict 162
VII. The Elements of the Acts Enumerated in Article 3 of SCSL Statute 163
1. Violence to Life, Health and Physical or Mental Well-being of Persons, in Particular Murder as well as Cruel Treatment such as Torture, Mutilation or any Form of Corporal Punishmed 164
2. Collective Punishments 165
3. Taking of Hostages 166
4. Acts of Terrorism 169
5. Outrages upon Personal Dignity, in Particular Humiliating and Degrading Treatment, Rape, Enforced Prostitution and any Form of Indecent Assault 171
6. Pillage 173
7. The Passing of Sentences and the Carrying out of Executions without Previous Judgment Pronounced by a Regularly Constituted Court, Affording all the Judicial Guarantees which are Recognized as Indispensable by Civilized Peoples 174
VIII. Conclusion 175
Chapter 6: The Special Court’s Case Law on other Serious Violations of IHL 176
I. The Notion of Customary International Law 177
II. Intentionally Directing Attacks against Personnel, Installations, Material, Units or Vehicles Involved in a Humanitaran Assistance or Peacekeeping Mission in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations 177
1. Treaties and other Legal Instruments 179
2. Protection given to Civilians and Civilian Objects 183
3. The Practice of the Special Court 185
a) The Accused Directed an Attack against Personnel, Installations, Material, Units or Vehicles Involved in a Humanitarian Assistance or Peacekeeping Mission in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations 188
b) The Accused Intended such Personnel, Installations, Material, Units or Vehicles to be the Object of the Attack 190
c) Such Personnel, Installations, Material, Units or Vehicles were Entitled to that Protection given to Civilians or Civilian Objects under the International Law of Armed Conflict 191
d) The Accused knew or had Reason to know that the Personnel, Installations, Material, Units or Vehicles were Protected 192
III. Conscripting or Enlisting Children under the Age of 15 Years into Armed Forces or Groups or Using them to Participate Actively in Hostilities 194
1. General Remarks 194
2. Foundation of the Crime 197
3. The Conscripting or Enlisting Children under the Age of 15 Years into Armed Forces or Groups or Using them to Participate Actively in Hostilities as Customary International Law? 198
4. The Jurisprudence of the Special Court 205
a) Material Elements 209
aa) Conscription and Enlistment 209
bb) (National Armed Forces), Armed Forces and Armed Groups 212
cc) Active Participation in Hostilities 213
b) Mental Elements – The knew or should have known Test 217
Chapter 7: Crimes under Sierra Leonean Law 219
Chapter 8: The Legacy of the Special Court 225
I. Jurisprudence on Amnesty 226
1. What is an International Crime? 226
2. The Concept of Amnesty 227
3. International Criminal Law Conventions 235
4. General Human Rights Conventions 237
5. Soft Law Documents 241
II. Jurisprudence on Forced Marriage 246
1. General Remarks 246
2. The Concept of Forced Marriage 247
3. The Requirement of Consent 254
III. Jurisprudence on Head of State Immunity 256
1. Jurisdictional Requirement 259
2. Internationality Requirement 261
a) Head of State Immunity as a Bar to Criminal Proceedings? 261
b) The Obligation of Third States to Cooperate 266
c) What are the Common Factors/Criteria for an International Criminal Court? 269
IV. Jurisdiction over Children between 15 and 18 Years of Age 271
V. Jurisprudence on Sentencing 273
1. Primary Objectives of Sentencing 273
a) Retribution 274
b) Deterrence 275
2. The Regulatory Framework for Sentencing at the Special Court 277
3. The Practice of Sentencing at the Special Court 278
VI. Outreach Section 280
Chapter 9: General Conclusion 282
German Summary 285
Bibliography 290
Special Court Judgments, Decisions and other Documents 307
1. Appeal Judgments (A) (chronological) 307
2. Trial Judgments (T) (chronological) 307
3. Appeal Decisions (Decision on Interlocutory) (chronological) 307
4. Decisions (chronological) 308
5. Indictments (chronological) 309
ICTY Judgments, Decisions and Indictments 310
1. Appeal Judgments (A) (chronological) 310
2. Judgments (T) (chronological) 310
3. Appeal Decisions (chronological) 312
4. Decisions (T) 312
5. Indictments (chronological) 312
ICTR Judgments and Indictments 313
1. Appeal Judgments (A) (chronological) 313
2. Judgments (T) (chronological) 313
3. Indictments 314
Other Jurisprudence and Documents 315
1. International Court of Justice (chronological) 315
2. International Criminal Court (chronological) 315
3. Special Tribunal for Lebanon 316
4. African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights 316
5. European Court of Human Rights 317
6. Inter-American Court of Human Rights 317
7. Inter-American Commission of Human Rights 317
8. Nuremberg Tribunal (chronological) 317
9. Israel 317
10. Malaysia 317
11. United Kingdom (chronological) 317
12. United States of America (chronological) 318
13. Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal for the Trial of Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery 318
United Nations Documents 319
1. United Nations Security Council Resolutions (chronological) 319
2. United Nations General Assembly Resolutions (chronological) 320
3. United Nations Secretary-General Reports (chronological) 320
4. Other United Nations Documents (alphabetical) 320
Table of other Authorities 323
1. Domestic Laws (alphabetical) 323
2. International Legal Instruments and Commentaries (alphabetical) 324
3. List of other Legal Authorities (alphabetical) 325
4. Statutes of International Criminal Courts (alphabetical) 328
Index 329