German Yearbook of International Law / Jahrbuch für Internationales Recht

doi:10.3790/978-3-428-46148-6

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Delbrück, J., Hofmann, R., Zimmermann, A. (Eds.) (1986). German Yearbook of International Law / Jahrbuch für Internationales Recht. Vol. 28 (1985). Duncker & Humblot. https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-46148-6

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German Yearbook of International Law / Jahrbuch für Internationales Recht

Vol. 28 (1985)

Editors: Delbrück, Jost | Hofmann, Rainer | Zimmermann, Andreas

German Yearbook of International Law / Jahrbuch für Internationales Recht, Vol. 28

(1986)

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Publisher Name: Duncker & Humblot
ISBN: 978-3-428-46148-6
978-3-428-06148-8 (print edition)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-46148-6
Edition: 1
Language: English
Pages: 556
Collections: NBE RECHT
NBE D&H
Subjects: Public international law

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Institution: € 270.00 (incl. local VAT if applicable)
Individual: € 179.90 (incl. local VAT if applicable)

Abstract

The German Yearbook of International Law, founded as the Jahrbuch für Internationales Recht, provides an annual report on new developments in international law and is edited by the Walther Schücking Institute for International Law at the Kiel University. Since its inception in 1948, the Yearbook has endeavored to make a significant academic contribution to the ongoing development of international law. Over many decades the Yearbook has moved beyond its origins as a forum for German scholars to publish their research and has become a highly-regarded international forum for innovative scholarship in international law. In 1976, the Yearbook adopted its current title and began to publish contributions written in English in order to reach the largest possible international audience. This editorial decision has enabled the Yearbook to successfully overcome traditional language barriers and inform an international readership about current research in German academic institutions and, at the same time, to present international viewpoints to its German audience. Fully aware of the paramount importance of international practice, the Yearbook publishes contributions from active practitioners of international law on a regular basis. The Yearbook also includes critical comments on German state practice relating to international law, as well as international reactions to that practice.

Section Title	Page	Action	Price
CONTENTS	5
ARTICLES	9
Alfred de Zayas / Jakob Th. Möller / Torkel Opsahl: Application of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights under the Optional Protocol by the Human Rights Committee	9
I. Introduction	9
1. Procedure on Admissibility and Merits	9
a) Admissibility	13
b) Merits	14
c) Interim Measures	14
2. Evidence and Burden of Proof	15
3. Individual Opinions	16
4. Duration of the Procedure	16
5. Progress of Work	16
II. Issues Considered by the Committee	17
1. Criteria for Admissibility under the Optional Protocol	17
a) The Standing of the Author	17
b) The Victim	18
c) Date of Entry into Force of the Covenant and the Optional Protocol	19
d) Individuals Subject to a State Party's Jurisdiction	20
e) Preclusion under Article 5 (2) (a)	21
f) Reservations by States Parties	23
g) Exhaustion of Domestic Remedies	24
h) Incompatibility	25
i) Substantiation of Allegations	26
j) Abuse of the Right of Submission	26
k) Competence of the Committee vis-à-vis National Law and Decisions	27
2. Substantive Issues under the Covenant	30
a) Article 6: The Right to Life	31
b) Article 7: The Right not to be Subjected to Torture or to Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment	34
c) Article 9: The Right to Liberty and Security of Person	36
aa) Arbitrary Arrest and Detention (Article 9[1])	36
bb) The Right to be Brought Promptly Before a Judge and Tried within a Reasonable Time (Article 9 [3])	38
cc) The Right to Challenge the Lawfulness of one's Arrest and Detention (Article 9 [4])	39
dd) The Right to Compensation for Unlawful Arrest or Detention (Article 9 [5])	40
e) Article 12: The Right to Freedom of Movement and to Leave any Country	42
f) Article 13: The Right of an Alien not to be Expelled Arbitrarily from his Country of Residence	43
g) Article 14: The Right to a Fair Hearing	44
aa) Fair and Public Hearing by a Competent, Independent and Impartial Tribunal (Article 14 [ l ])	46
bb) Minimum Guarantees i n the Determination of any Criminal Charge (Article 14 [3])	47
h) Article 15: Nulla poena sine leg	51
i) Article 17: The Right to Freedom from Interference with one's Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence	52
j) Article 18: The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion	53
k) Article 19: The Right to Hold Opinions, Freedom of Expression	54
l) Article 20: Prohibition of War Propaganda and the Right to Protection f r om Advocacy of Racial or Religious Hatred	56
m) Article 22: Freedom of Association	57
n) Article 23: The Right of the Family to Protection	58
o) Article 25: The Right to Take Part in Political Activity	59
p) Article 26: Discrimination on the Ground of Sex	60
q) Article 27: Protection of Minorities	61
3. Derogation from Obligations under the Covenant	61
III. Conclusion	63
César Sepúlveda: The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States: 25 Years of Evolution and Endeavour	65
I. Introduction	65
II. Creation of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights	66
III. Development and Work of the Commission	68
1. From 1960 through 1973	68
2. From 1974 to 1979	70
3. The Phase between 1980 and 1985	73
IV. The Methods of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights	79
V. The Commission and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights	83
VI. Politics and Law in the Work of the Commission	84
VII. Future Prospects	86
Martin Bullinger: Freedom of Expression and Information: An Essential Element of Democracy	88
Part 1: Introduction	90
1. Implications of Satellites and Cable Networks	90
2. Different Aspects of the Convention and the Treaty of Rome	92
3. Freedom of Expression by New Electronic Media as an Element of Democracy	92
4. Individual Freedom of Expression as the Primary Subject of this Report	93
Part 2: Democracy in the Sense of Art. 10 of the Convention	93
1. Freedom of Expression as a Foundation of Democracy	93
2. Pluralistic Democracy	94
3. Prerequisites of a Pluralistic Democracy	95
4. Different Meanings of Freedom of Expression in Pluralistic and Non-Pluralistic Democracies	96
Part 3: Individual Freedom of Expression and Information as an Element of Democracy	96
I. Freedom of Expression in General	97
1. A Prerequisite of Democratic Decision-Making., an Element of the Forming of Public Opinion	97
2. Position of Aliens	98
3. Content of Expression	99
a) Offending or Shocking Minority Statements Included	99
b) Enhanced Freedom of Political Expression	99
c) Commercial Character not Excluding Freedom of Expression	101
4. Ways and Means	102
a) Technical Ways and Means	102
b) Financial Means	103
5. Purely Negative Freedom or Necessity of „Affirmative“ State Action	104
II. Freedom to Receive Information and Ideas: Specific Aspects	105
1. Freedom to Take Notice of Illegally Disseminated Information and Ideas	105
2. Freedom to Seek Information	105
3. Right to Information	106
a) Right to be Generally Informed by Mass Media and Public Authorities	106
b) Individual Access to Information Held by Public Authorities	107
Part 4: Freedom of Expression and Information by Print Media as an Element of Democracy	108
I. Non-Periodical Publications	109
1. Leaflets, Tracts	109
2. Books	109
II. Periodicals, in particular Newspapers	110
1. Declining Plurality of Newspapers	110
2. „Public Task“ of Newspapers , Shortcomings Concerning Individual Freedom of Expression	111
3. State Duty to Affirm Freedom of Expression	112
4. Means of Affirming Freedom of Expression	113
5. Compensation by Other Media for Insufficient Newspaper Plurality	114
Part 5: Freedom of Expression and Information by Electronic Media as an Element of Democracy	115
A. General Remarks	115
B. Radio and Television	116
I. Freedom of Expression by Radio and Television in General	116
1. Traditional Public Monopoly and its Impact on the Interpretation of Art. 10	116
a) Licence Clause Originally Interpreted as Indiscriminately Authorizing a Public Monopoly (1968)	116
b) Possible Impact of a Public Monopoly on Freedom of Expression	117
c) Licence Clause Partly Reconsidered, (Affirmative Duty, Access to Broadcasting Time only in Exceptional Circumstances)	117
d) Reluctance to Grant Access to Individuals or Groups to Public Broadcasting in the Member States	118
2. Changing Factual and Legal Conditions of Broadcasting as a Possible Inducement to further Reconsider Art. 10	119
a) Progressive Abandonment of the Public Broadcasting Monopoly in the Member States	120
b) Structural Evolution of Radio and Television Underlying the Abandonment of the Monopoly	121
c) Factors and Conditions of a Reorientation on the European and National Level	123
3. Individual Freedom to Impart Information and Ideas by Broadcasting (Access to Broadcasting)	125
a) Access of Programme-Providers to Private Broadcasting	125
aa) Access to Transmission Facilities	126
bb) Access to Programme Licences	127
cc) Restrictions Affecting Access, in particular Advertising Regulations	127
b) Access of Programme-Providers to Public Broadcasting	129
c) Access of Foreign Programme-Providers to Inland Broadcasting	129
aa) Foreign Providers of Normal Inland Programmes	130
bb) Foreign Programme-Providers of Inland Programmes for Inland Alien Communities	131
cc) Access of Foreigners to Public Broadcasting	131
d) Access of Foreign Broadcasters to Inland Retransmission	132
aa) Programmes Transmitted by Direct Broadcasting Satellites	132
bb) Programmes Transmitted by Telecommunication Satellites	133
cc) Satellites Creating a Need for a Harmonization of National Broadcasting Laws	134
II. Freedom to Receive Radio and Television Programmes	134
1. Freedom to Receive Radio and Television Programmes in General	135
a) Inapplicability of the Licence Clause	135
b) Right to use an Individual Antenna	135
c) Right to Receive by Community Antennas all Programmes Normally Available in the Air	135
2. Freedom to Receive Satellite Programmes in Particular	136
a) Freedom to Receive Direct Broadcasting Satellite (DBS) Programmes	136
b) Freedom to Receive Programmes Transmitted by Telecommunication Satellites	137
C. New Forms of Electromagnetic Delivery (New Electronic Services)	138
I. The Phenomenon	138
II. Freedom of Expression by New Electronic Services	138
1. Inapplicability of the Licence Clause Concerning „Broadcasting“ (Art. 10 [1] 3)	138
2. Possible and Partial Applicability of the License Clause Concerning Cinema Enterprises (Art. 10 [1] 3)	139
3. Freedom to Seek Information by New Electronic Services	140
III. New Electronic Information Services as a Link between Print and Electronic Media, between Individual and Mass Communication	140
Part 6: Summary	140
Albert Bleckmann: The Subjective Right in Public International Law	144
Hâkon Eriksen: The Legal Status of the Sami in Norway	163
I. Introduction	163
1. The General Situation of the Sami	163
2. Norwegian Sami Policy	164
3. The Sami's Demands	164
II. Protection of Culture: Language	165
1. International Law	165
2. Norwegian Law	167
a) Sami in the Nine-Year Basic School	167
aa) Legal Situation	167
bb) Proposals	169
b) Public Administration and the Sami Language	169
aa) Legal Situation	169
bb) Proposals	170
c) Other Factors of Significance for the Sami Language	170
d) Proposal for Incorporating Provisions on Protection of the Sami Culture in the Constitution	171
III. The Right to Land and Water	171
1. International Law	172
2. Norwegian Law	173
a) Recognized Rights over Land and Water	174
b) The Sami's Claims to Land and Water Based on Ancient Use	176
c) Proposals	178
IV. Self-Determination and Influence on Decisions	179
1. International Law	179
2. Norwegian Law	180
a) Legal Situation	180
b) Proposals for Regulations for Self-Government	182
V. Final Remarks	184
Wilhelm Wengler: Neue australische Verfassungsrechtsprechung zur Rassendiskriminierung	186
Summary	193
Jost Delbrück and Klaus Dicke: The Christian Peace Ethic and the Doctrine of Just War from the Point of View of International Law	194
Introductory Remarks	194
I. The Doctrine of Just War in the Development of International Law until the End of World War I	196
II. The bellum iustum Doctrine in the Light of the Prohibition of the Use of Force in Modern International Law	199
1. The Abolishment of the Liberum ius ad bellum in Modern International Law	200
2. The ius in hello	202
3. International Law Interpretations of the Existing Law with Regard to the Doctrine of Just War	203
III. Tendencies towards a Renaissance of the Doctrine of Just War	207
Trutz Rendtorff: Christian Ethics and the Doctrine of Just War A Re-evaluation in the Nuclear Age	209
I. A New Debate on the Doctrine of Just War?	209
1. Arguments Concerning a Renewal of the Debate „Christian Ethics and the Doctrine of Just War“	209
2. „Justification“ of War? Theological and Ethical Perspectives	211
II. The Meaning and Intention of the Doctrine of Just War	214
1. Its Reception into Christian Ethics	214
2. The Profile of the Doctrine of Just War	216
a) lus ad bellum	216
b) Iusta causa	216
c) Intentio recta	216
3. The Historical Relevance of the Theory of „Just War“	217
III. Ethical Problems of the Doctrine of Just War	218
1. The Proportionality of Means and Ends in the Nuclear Age	218
2. The Crisis of the Concept of Peace	220
IV. From the Doctrine of „Just War“ to the Doctrine of „Just Peace“	222
1. Thinking Towards Peace	222
2. The Concept of Peace	223
3. The Role of Military Force	224
4. The Problem of Peace in the Conflict of Systems	225
5. Internal and External Peace	227
V. The Churches and Peace	228
Elmar Rauch: Military Uses of the Oceans	229
I. Introduction	229
II. Law of the Sea Convention and Naval Missions	233
III. Analysis of the Treaty Provisions Concerning Military Activities	238
1. Peaceful Uses of the Sea	238
2. Innocent Passage	242
3. Transit Passage	244
4. Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage	249
5. Exclusive Economic Zone	250
6. Installations on the Continental Shelf and in the EEZ	253
7. Enclosed and Semi-Enclosed Seas	258
8. High Seas	258
9. Deep Sea-Bed and Ocean Floor	259
10. Protection of the Marine Environment	260
11. Marine Scientific Research	260
12. Settlement of Disputes	265
IV. Conclusions	267
L. F. E. Goldie: Special Problems Concerning Deep Seabed Mining in the Event of Non-Participation in UNCLOS: Prospect for a Reciprocating States Régime, Site Certainty, Investment Assurance and Potential Litigation	268
I. Introduction	268
II. Equity as an Instrumental Value (Efficiency) and as Categorical (Justice) – A Preliminary Stipulatio	268
III. Equity in International Law	270
1. Equity and the „General Principles of Law Recognized by Civilized Nations“	270
a) Equity and the „General Principles“ Clause	270
b) The „General Principles of Law“ and the „Ex Aequo et Bono“ Clause	271
2. The International Functions of Equity Under the „General Principles“ Clause	272
a) The Relation of International Equity (in the Sense of the Equitable Rules Accepted under Article 38 [1] [c] ) to International Law	272
b) A Provisional Definition	273
IV. Instrumental Equities and Individual States' Claims to Newly Available Natural Resources	274
1. Introduction	274
a) An Overview	274
b) A Preliminary Explanation – And an Example	275
2. Received Instrumental Equities in International Law	275
a) Abuse of Rights (and Unjust Enrichment Arising Therefrom)	275
b) Reliance and Notice as Equities	276
c) The Equities of Estoppel and Laches	276
d) Proportionality as an Instrumental Equity	276
V. Relating Distributive Equities and the Equities of Wealth Maximization	277
1. The Question of Distributive Justice	277
a) A Perspective	277
b) The Categorical Equities and the Principle of Solidarity	278
2. The Question of the „Right Mix“ in an International Justice System	278
a) Comparing the Categorical and Instrumental Equities	278
b) The Efficiency of the Equities of Wealth Enhancement	279
c) The Ordering of Equities for the Ends of Justice	279
d) Fairness and the Seabed Authority	280
VI. The Law of the Sea Treaty: The Balance of Equities and the Effects of Negotiation and of Signature: The Montego Bay Avowals	281
1. The Avowals – A Comment	281
2. The Duty to Refrain from Conduct which may Defeat the „Object and Purpose“ of the Treaty	282
a) Exposures Arising from Participation	282
b) An Artificial Dilemma	285
3. The Pre-Emption Argument	285
4. Views from the Seabeds Committee (lus Tertii)	287
VII. The Peaceful Co-Existence of Two or More Distinct Régimes	288
1. Alternative Régimes	288
a) Peaceful Co-Existence	288
b) The „Mini-Treaty“ or „Reciprocal Regime“ Model – A Prototype	289
2. A Problem of Pre-Emption	291
3. A Proposed Blue Print	292
VIII. Conclusion	296
Uwe Jenisch: Sovereign Rights in the Arctic Maritime Policies and Practices after UNCLOS III	297
I. Old and New Uses in the Arctic	297
II. The New Maritime Zones	303
III. Maritime Policy and Practice	306
1. Norway	306
2. Soviet Union	312
3. USA/Alaska	316
4. Canada	317
5. Greenland / Denmark	318
IV. The Central Part of the Arctic Ocean	320
Hubertus Welsch: The London Dumping Convention and Sub-Seabed Disposal of Radioactive Waste	322
I. The Ban on Dumping and the Concept of Dumping	323
II. Interpretation of the Concept of Dumping on the Basis of the Text of the Convention, its Preamble and Annexes	326
1. The Meaning of Dumping	326
2. The Context of Article III. 1 (a) (i) of the LDC	327
3. The Context of Article III. 1 of the LDC	328
4. The Full Text of the Convention including the Preamble	329
a) The Concepts of the „Marine Environment“ and „Pollution of the Sea“	329
b) Reference to Resolution 2749 (XXV) of the General Assembly of the United Nations	331
c) Other References in the Text of the Convention	332
5. The Annexes of the Convention	333
6. Interpretation of the Text of the Convention together with the Preamble and Annexes. Results	334
III. Interpretation on the Basis of the International Atomic Energy Agency Definiton and Recommendations	335
IV. Other Subsequent Agreements among the Contracting Parties	337
V. Subsequent Practice by the Contracting Parties	341
VI. Supplementary Means of Interpretation	342
1. Interpretation on the Basis of Preparatory Work	342
2. Interpretation by Reference to the Circumstances of the Conclusion of the Convention or by other Means	351
VII. Result	352
VIII. Future Solutions	353
Mark M. Boguslavsky: Technology Transfer and International Law: the Soviet Approach	355
I. Significance of International Technology Transfer and Definition of the Notion of such Transfer	355
II. International Legal and Civil Legal Relations in the Transfer of Technology	358
III. Principles of International Law and Transfer of Tedinology	361
IV. International Legal Regulation of Transfer of Tedinology in Relations among CMEA Member Countries	365
V. Conclusion	369
Tobias Stoll: Proprietary Protection of Computer Software in National and International Perspective	370
I. Introduction	370
II. Technical Considerations	371
III. Patents and Copyright as Basic Concepts of Proprietary Protection	374
1. The Minor Role of Patent Law	375
2. Copyright	378
a) Objections against and Conditions of Protection	379
b) Scope of Protection	382
IV. Specialized Legislation in the Field of Computer Technology	383
V. Discussions on a Copyright – Type Software Protection	386
1. Prevalence of Economically-Orientated Reasoning	387
2. The Demand for Proprietary Protection	389
3. The Issue of Technology	391
4. Limitations of Exclusionary Rights	395
5. Efficiency of Legal Protection	397
VI. International Aspects of Proprietary Protection of Computer Technology	398
1. International Intellectual Property Protection as Applied to Computer Technology	398
2. Options of International Protection	400
3. Possible Areas of International Consensus	403
4. The Technology Transfer Issue	404
5. Advisability of Participating in International Protection	405
6. Limitation of Rights and the Need for Differentiation	407
7. Prospects of a Future International Protection Scheme	408
Wolfgang Seiffert: Völkerrechtliche Aspekte der Verlängerung des Warschauer Paktes	409
I. Form und Gründe für die Form der Verlängerung	410
II. Die Wirkungen der Verlängerung	414
III. Warschauer Pakt und Stationierung sowjetischer Truppen in seinen Mitgliedstaaten	418
IV. Völkerrechtliche Struktur des Warschauer Paktes und machtpolitische Realitäten	420
Summary	423
NOTE AND COMMENT	425
Roger D. Billings, Jr.: International Standards for Automotive Arbitration	425
Angela Rapp: The Legal Limits of the Director – General s Discretionary Authority to Renew or not to Renew Fixed Term and Temporary Appointments. A Review of the Cases Decided by the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO	435
I. Procedure	436
II. The Decision not to Renew a Contract	436
1. Earlier Judgements	436
a) General Considerations	436
b) Certain Pleas which Can Set Limitations on the Director-General's Discretionary Authority	438
2. Subsequent Judgements	439
REPORTS	442
Wulf Hermann: Die Tätigkeit des Nordischen Rates im Jahre 1984	442
I. Die Generaldebatte	443
II. Die Fachausschüsse	447
1. Der Wirtschaftsausschuß	447
2. Der Kulturausschuß	450
3. Der Sozial- und Umweltausschuß	451
4. Der Verkehrsausschuß	452
5. Der Rechtsausschuß	453
Michael Pehlke: Die Europäischen Gemeinschaften im Jahre 1984	456
I. Überblick	456
II. Institutionelle Entwicklung	458
III. Ausbau des Gemeinsamen Marktes	461
IV. Politiken der Gemeinschaft	464
V. Die Außenbeziehungen der Gemeinschaft	470
VI. Rechtsprechung zum Gemeinschaftsrecht	474
Regine Ludwig: Die Tätigkeit des Europarates im Jahre 1984	478
I. Organisatorische Fragen; Allgemeines	478
II. Behandlung allgemeinpolitisdier Themen im Europarat	479
III. Rechtsvereinheitlichung und Zusammenarbeit unter den Mitgliedstaaten; Konventionen und Übereinkommen	488
IV. Schutz der Menschenrechte	491
a) Individualbeschwerden nach Art. 25 EMRK	491
aa) Recht auf Freiheit und Sicherheit	491
bb) Recht auf faires Verfahren	493
cc) Dauer des Verfahrens	494
dd) Respektierung des Rechts auf Eigentum	495
ff) Recht auf Privatleben	496
gg) Haftbedingungen	496
hh) Verbot der Diskriminierung	496
ii) Recht auf freie Meinungsäußerung	497
b) Staatenbeschwerde nach Art. 24 EMRK	497
DOCUMENTATION	506
Nordischer Rat: Übereinkommen über die Zusammenarbeit zwischen Dänemark, Finnland, Island, Norwegen und Schweden (Helsinki-Abkommen)	506
Geschäftsordnung des Nordischen Rates	519
Book Reviews	528
Books Received	547
List of Contributors	554

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German Yearbook of International Law / Jahrbuch für Internationales Recht

Vol. 28 (1985)

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