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The Legality of Targeted Killings in View of Direct Participation in Hostilities
(2015)
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Josef Alkatout, deutsch-palästinensischen Ursprungs, wuchs in den USA sowie in Süddeutschland auf. Nach dem Studium der Rechtswissenschaft und der internationalen Beziehungen in der Schweiz und in Finnland, promovierte er an der Universität Göttingen im internationalen Strafrecht zum Dr. jur. Er war über mehrere Jahre als Jurist in der Regulierungsbranche in London und Genf sowie als Dozent für den Weltverband der Gesellschaften für die Vereinten Nationen beschäftigt. Momentan vertritt er die tamilische Exilregierung in New York in Belangen des internationalen Strafrechts und ist darüber hinaus für eine Genfer Rechtsanwaltskanzlei tätig. Seine Abhandlung zur Zulässigkeit der Tötung Osama bin Ladens wurde in sechs Sprachen veröffentlicht. Josef Alkatout ist auch Autor von zwei belletristischen Romanen.Abstract
In today's asymmetric armed conflicts, military agents carry out targeted killings against civilians that »take a direct part in the hostilities«. This book defines such participation for the purposes of international humanitarian, criminal and human rights law. Additionally, the general framework of the law of war is revisited, in particular under the currently frequent scenario of non-international armed conflicts. Treaty requirements for the recognition of non-state actors (degree of collectivity) are addressed and the legal ethics of a strict status-based approach in international law (combatants/civilians) is opined on. The study at hand analyzes the repertory of applicable legal texts and their authentic versions in the different official languages. It discloses existing incoherencies and gives an overview of their implementation into the national legislation of several countries. The research closes with a fictional case study. Graphs and figures are used for illustration purposes throughout the document.In today's asymmetric armed conflicts, military agents carry out targeted killings against civilians that »take a direct part in the hostilities«. This book defines such participation for the purposes of international humanitarian, criminal and human rights law. Additionally, the general framework of the law of war is revisited, in particular under the currently frequent scenario of non-international armed conflicts. Treaty requirements for the recognition of non-state actors (degree of collectivity) are addressed and the legal ethics of a strict status-based approach in international law (combatants/civilians) is opined on. The study at hand analyzes the repertory of applicable legal texts and their authentic versions in the different official languages. It discloses existing incoherencies and gives an overview of their implementation into the national legislation of several countries. The research closes with a fictional case study. Graphs and figures are used for illustration purposes throughout the document.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acknowledgements | 7 | ||
| Contents | 9 | ||
| Abbreviations and Terminology | 14 | ||
| A. Introduction | 21 | ||
| I. Aim of this Study | 23 | ||
| II. Historical Development of Asymmetric Warfare, Immediate Participation in Hostilities and Targeted Killings | 23 | ||
| III. Definition of Targeted Killings | 30 | ||
| IV. Applicable Law | 32 | ||
| 1. The Hague Law, Geneva Law and International Criminal Law | 32 | ||
| 2. Anonymous Killings versus Targeted Killings | 34 | ||
| 3. International Human Rights Law | 37 | ||
| 4. IHL’s Applicability ratione loci | 41 | ||
| 5. IHL’s Applicability ratione temporis | 46 | ||
| B. International and Non-international Armed Conflicts | 48 | ||
| I. Qualification as an International Armed Conflict | 48 | ||
| II. Several Levels of Non-international Armed Conflicts | 49 | ||
| 1. Three-step Approach | 49 | ||
| 2. Territorial Control | 51 | ||
| 3. Impact on Targeted Killings and Immediate Participation in Hostilities | 54 | ||
| III. Particular International and Non-international Armed Conflicts | 55 | ||
| IV. Convergence of International and Non-international Armed Conflicts | 57 | ||
| V. Immediate Participation in Hostilities as a Concern of Non-international Armed Conflicts | 59 | ||
| C. Statuses during Armed Conflict | 61 | ||
| I. International Armed Conflicts | 61 | ||
| 1. Combatants | 61 | ||
| 2. Civilians | 64 | ||
| 3. Allocation and Loss of Status | 67 | ||
| II. Non-international Armed Conflicts | 69 | ||
| 1. No Combatant Status, no Prisoners of War | 69 | ||
| 2. Emergence of the Law and States’ Interests | 71 | ||
| 3. Impact on the Ground, Reciprocity and Legal Ethics | 72 | ||
| 4. Voluntary Granting of Combatant Status? | 74 | ||
| 5. Rights and Denomination of Members of the State’s Armed Forces | 75 | ||
| 6. Conclusion on Statuses | 77 | ||
| III. Categories Independent of the Conflict’s Nature | 78 | ||
| 1. “Non-combatants” | 78 | ||
| 2. “Quasi-combatants” | 80 | ||
| 3. Parlementaires | 81 | ||
| 4. Private Contractors | 82 | ||
| IV. Correct Denomination of Immediately Participating Civilians | 84 | ||
| D. Principle of Distinction | 91 | ||
| I. Principle of Active Distinction | 91 | ||
| II. Principle of Passive Distinction | 92 | ||
| E. (No) Protection from Military Attack during Armed Conflict | 96 | ||
| I. Combatants | 96 | ||
| II. Civilians | 98 | ||
| 1. Art. 51 (3) of AP I | 98 | ||
| 2. Provisions Similar to Art. 51 (3) of AP I | 100 | ||
| 3. Active, Direct, Real and Immediate Participation | 103 | ||
| a) Overview of the Different Concepts | 103 | ||
| b) How to Interpret the Different Concepts | 106 | ||
| aa) Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969 (VCLT) | 106 | ||
| bb) Statutory Interpretation in General | 107 | ||
| (1) Literal / Grammatical Interpretation | 107 | ||
| (2) Systematic Interpretation | 108 | ||
| (3) Teleological Interpretation | 108 | ||
| cc) Subsidiary Interpretation Methods under Art. 32 of the VCLT | 109 | ||
| (1) Travaux préparatoires | 109 | ||
| (2) Historical Interpretation | 109 | ||
| (3) International Texts and Practice | 109 | ||
| (4) International Texts and Practice put to the Test | 111 | ||
| (5) Inclusive and Conciliatory Interpretation | 111 | ||
| dd) Noscitur a sociis Approach | 112 | ||
| ee) “Immediate” Participation in Hostilities | 112 | ||
| 4. Conclusion on the Exceptional Clause’s Appropriate Wording and its Reasoning | 113 | ||
| 5. Remaining Protection for aCcivilian Taking an Immediate Part in Hostilities | 114 | ||
| a) International Armed Conflicts | 114 | ||
| b) Non-international Armed Conflicts | 115 | ||
| III. Loss of Protection from Attack via Membership in the Armed Forces or an Organized Armed Entity | 116 | ||
| 1. States’ Armed Forces | 116 | ||
| 2. Denomination of the Concerned Non-state Entities | 117 | ||
| 3. Definition of Membership | 117 | ||
| 4. International Armed Conflicts | 118 | ||
| a) Qualification as an Organized Resistance Movement and Loss of Protection from Attack | 118 | ||
| b) Additional Qualification for Combatant Status | 120 | ||
| c) Comprehensive Understanding of Members of an Organized Resistance Movement | 121 | ||
| d) Individuals not under Military Command | 122 | ||
| 5. Non-international Armed Conflicts | 124 | ||
| a) Strict Requirements for Organized Armed Groups | 124 | ||
| b) Absence of Combatant Status | 125 | ||
| c) Continuous Combat Function | 125 | ||
| d) No Immunity from Attack | 126 | ||
| 6. Practical Consequences of a Strict Approach for the Entities’ Qualification | 127 | ||
| 7. Duration of Membership | 129 | ||
| 8. Concluding Remarks on Membership Approach | 130 | ||
| F. Immediate Participation in Hostilities | 132 | ||
| I. Introduction | 132 | ||
| II. Israeli Judgment (“Targeted Killings” Case) | 133 | ||
| III. ICRC Interpretive Guidance | 137 | ||
| IV. Case-by-case Approach? | 139 | ||
| V. Definition of Immediate Participation in Hostilities | 140 | ||
| 1. “And for such Time as” – Immediate Participation in Hostilities ratione temporis | 143 | ||
| a) Basic Principle | 143 | ||
| b) Beginning of Immediate Participation in Hostilities | 143 | ||
| c) End of Immediate Participation in Hostilities | 145 | ||
| aa) “Specific Acts Approach” and its “Revolving Door” | 146 | ||
| bb) Not an Issue of lex scripta versus lex non scripta | 149 | ||
| cc) Taking into Account the Entire “Hostile Period” | 150 | ||
| dd) One-time Immediate Participation in Hostilities | 151 | ||
| ee) Case of Return from Attack | 153 | ||
| ff) Responsibility to Determine the End of Immediate Participation on the Ground | 154 | ||
| gg) How to Signal the End of Membership or of Immediate Participation in Hostilities? | 155 | ||
| (1) Individualized Approach | 156 | ||
| (2) Database Registration | 156 | ||
| (3) Burden of Proof Lies with the Attacker | 159 | ||
| (4) How to Accelerate the End of Membership or Immediate Participation in Hostilities? | 159 | ||
| 2. Hostilities | 162 | ||
| 3. Direct Causation | 164 | ||
| 4. Belligerent Nexus | 166 | ||
| 5. Classic Notions of Criminal Law | 167 | ||
| a) Attempt, Threat, Likelihood of Harm and Guilt | 168 | ||
| b) Actus reus and mens rea | 170 | ||
| c) Situations of Doubt | 171 | ||
| 6. Additional Requirements for (Im-)Mediate Participation in Hostilities | 172 | ||
| a) The Unlawfulness of an Act and the Weakening of the Adversary | 172 | ||
| b) Carrying of a Weapon | 173 | ||
| VI. Specific Cases of Immediate Participation in Hostilities | 174 | ||
| 1. Human Shields | 174 | ||
| 2. Computer Attacks | 178 | ||
| 3. Drones | 180 | ||
| VII. Illustrative Examples of Immediate Participation in Hostilities | 185 | ||
| VIII. Mediate Participation in Hostilities | 192 | ||
| IX. Right to Immediate Participation in Hostilities | 198 | ||
| G. Practice of Targeted Killings in Light of other IHL Principles | 200 | ||
| I. Proportionality | 200 | ||
| II. Prohibitions of Perfidy and Denial of Quarter | 203 | ||
| III. Other Principles and Conclusion | 205 | ||
| H. Legality of Targeted Killings in Armed Conflict | 206 | ||
| I. In General | 206 | ||
| II. Less Harmful Means | 211 | ||
| III. Target Lists | 217 | ||
| IV. Ex post Investigation of a Killing’s Legality? | 218 | ||
| I. Fictional Case Study | 220 | ||
| I. Fictional Facts | 220 | ||
| II. Application of the Law and its Principles | 221 | ||
| 1. Applicable Law | 221 | ||
| 2. Qualification of the Conflict and Corresponding Legal Texts | 221 | ||
| 3. Assessment of the collectivities and the individuals as well as of their acts | 222 | ||
| a) allYance | 223 | ||
| aa) Intrinsic Characteristics | 223 | ||
| bb) Military Vulnerability | 223 | ||
| cc) Criminal Liability | 224 | ||
| b) Y. Woman | 224 | ||
| c) Xeno | 224 | ||
| d) forZes | 226 | ||
| aa) Intrinsic Characteristics | 226 | ||
| bb) Military Vulnerability and no General Criminal Liability | 226 | ||
| cc) Lawfulness of the forZes’ Acts | 227 | ||
| III. Conclusion | 227 | ||
| J. Conclusions | 229 | ||
| I. In General | 229 | ||
| II. Substantive Findings | 229 | ||
| III. “And for such Time as” | 230 | ||
| IV. Use of Appropriate Expressions | 231 | ||
| References and Bibliography | 233 | ||
| Domestic Legislation, Regulation and Communication | 269 | ||
| I. France | 269 | ||
| II. Germany | 269 | ||
| III. Israel | 270 | ||
| IV. Netherlands | 270 | ||
| V. New Zealand | 270 | ||
| VI. Norway | 270 | ||
| VII. Switzerland | 270 | ||
| VIII. U.K. | 270 | ||
| IX. U.S. | 270 | ||
| Table of Cases | 273 | ||
| I. International | 273 | ||
| 1. ICC | 273 | ||
| 2. ICJ | 273 | ||
| 3. ICTR | 274 | ||
| 4. ICTY | 274 | ||
| 5. Other | 275 | ||
| II. Domestic | 275 | ||
| 1. Canada | 275 | ||
| 2. Colombia | 275 | ||
| 3. Germany | 276 | ||
| 4. Israel | 276 | ||
| 5. Switzerland | 276 | ||
| 6. U.S. | 276 | ||
| Subject Index | 277 |