Antarctic Challenge III
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Wolfrum, R. (Ed.) (1988). Antarctic Challenge III. Conflicting Interests, Cooperation Environmental Protection, Economic Development. Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Symposium July 7th - 12th, 1987. Organized by the Institut für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel and the Alfred-Wegener-Inst. Duncker & Humblot. https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-46550-7
Wolfrum, Rüdiger. Antarctic Challenge III: Conflicting Interests, Cooperation Environmental Protection, Economic Development. Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Symposium July 7th - 12th, 1987. Organized by the Institut für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel and the Alfred-Wegener-Inst. Duncker & Humblot, 1988. Book. https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-46550-7
Wolfrum, R (ed.) (1988): Antarctic Challenge III: Conflicting Interests, Cooperation Environmental Protection, Economic Development. Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Symposium July 7th - 12th, 1987. Organized by the Institut für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel and the Alfred-Wegener-Inst, Duncker & Humblot, [online] https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-46550-7
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Antarctic Challenge III
Conflicting Interests, Cooperation Environmental Protection, Economic Development. Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Symposium July 7th - 12th, 1987. Organized by the Institut für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel and the Alfred-Wegener-Inst
Editors: Wolfrum, Rüdiger
Veröffentlichungen des Walther-Schücking-Instituts für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel, Vol. 105
(1988)
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Abstract
Die »Veröffentlichungen des Walther-Schücking-Instituts für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel« sind eine 1918 unter dem Namen »Aus dem Institut für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel« gegründete Schriftenreihe des ältesten universitären Völkerrechtsinstituts im deutschsprachigen Raum. Sie werden in der Nachfolge von Prof. Dr. Jost Delbrück herausgegeben. In ihr werden zum einen Habilitationsschriften von Institutsangehörigen und hervorragende Dissertationen, die von den Direktorinnen und Direktoren des Instituts betreut oder begutachtet wurden, veröffentlicht. Zum anderen erscheinen in der Schriftenreihe die Tagungsbände der vom Institut ausgerichteten internationalen Symposien und Workshops sowie die Sammelbände zu den jedes Jahr veranstalteten Ringvorlesungen des Instituts. Schließlich finden sonstige Monographien von Institutsangehörigen oder von mit dem Institut verbundenen Wissenschaftlern Aufnahme.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Contents | 5 | ||
| Abbreviations | 9 | ||
| Preface | 13 | ||
| Opening Ceremonies | 15 | ||
| Jost Delbrück: Welcoming Address | 15 | ||
| Roger Asmussen: Welcoming Address | 17 | ||
| Rüdiger Wolfrum: Opening Address | 19 | ||
| John A. Heap: The Role of Scientific Advice for the Decision-Making Process in the Antarctic Treaty System | 21 | ||
| General Discussion | 29 | ||
| R. Tucker Scully: The Institutional Development of the Antarctic Treaty System: The Question of a Secretariat | 41 | ||
| Alberto L. Davérède: Comment | 53 | ||
| General Discussion | 58 | ||
| Patrick Quilty: Cooperation in Antarctica in Scientific and Logistic Matters: Status and Means of Improvement | 65 | ||
| I. Why is Science so Important? | 65 | ||
| II. The Science/Logistics Nexus in Antarctic Affairs | 67 | ||
| III. Modes of Coordination of Antarctic Science/Logistics | 69 | ||
| SCAR | 69 | ||
| Treaty Instruments with a Scientific Component | 70 | ||
| Global Programs with Antarctic Components | 71 | ||
| Small Group Arrangements | 72 | ||
| Private Expeditions | 72 | ||
| Managers of National Antarctic Programs (MNAP) | 72 | ||
| IV. Scope for Improvement | 72 | ||
| Exchange of Scientists | 72 | ||
| Conference on the Future of Antarctic Science | 73 | ||
| Advance Notice of Future Science Programs | 73 | ||
| Common Use of Facilities | 74 | ||
| CATSA | 74 | ||
| Common Publication | 75 | ||
| V. Conclusion | 76 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 76 | ||
| Literature | 76 | ||
| Scott A. Hajost: International Agreements Applicable to Antarctica: A Survey | 79 | ||
| I. Arms Control | 81 | ||
| II. Hijacking, Sabotage and Terrorism | 83 | ||
| III. Wildlife Conservation | 85 | ||
| IV. Marine Environment | 87 | ||
| V. Maritime | 90 | ||
| VI. Nuclear | 93 | ||
| VII. Outer Space | 95 | ||
| VIII. Law of the Sea | 96 | ||
| IX. Intergovernmental Organizations | 98 | ||
| X. Conclusion | 103 | ||
| Patricia Birnie: Effect of Article VI of the Antarctic Treaty on Scientific Research | 105 | ||
| I. Introduction | 105 | ||
| 1. The Meaning, Value and Relevance of Scientific Research | 105 | ||
| 2. Definition of "scientific research" | 105 | ||
| 3. Scientific Research Requirements under the Antarctic Treaty | 106 | ||
| 4. Scientific Research under the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora | 108 | ||
| 5. Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals | 109 | ||
| 6. Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources | 109 | ||
| 7. Draft on Antarctic Mineral Resources | 110 | ||
| II. Article VI of the Antarctic Treaty: Its Relation to the Law of the Sea | 111 | ||
| 1. Territorial Sea (Article 245) | 113 | ||
| 2. EEZ and Continental Shelf (Article 241) | 113 | ||
| III. Relation of Article VI of the Antarctic Treaty to Article IV | 114 | ||
| IV. Articles IV and VI of the Antarctic Treaty and their Relation to Research under the UNLOSC Deep Seabed Regime | 117 | ||
| V. Marine Scientific Research in Antarctica: The Way Ahead | 118 | ||
| Panel Discussion | 121 | ||
| Orlando R. Rebagliati | 121 | ||
| Wolfgang E. Burhenne | 125 | ||
| Reinhard Müller | 128 | ||
| Alfonso Muñoz Seca | 129 | ||
| General Discussion | 131 | ||
| E. Augstein: Air – Sea – Ice Interactions in the Antarctic Pack Ice Region | 139 | ||
| I. General Considerations | 139 | ||
| II. Antarctic Sea Ice | 140 | ||
| III. Atmospheric Forcing | 141 | ||
| IV. Final Remarks | 141 | ||
| General Discussion | 142 | ||
| Dietrich Sahrhage: CCAMLR – Its Practical Side: The Polarstern Expedition | 143 | ||
| General Discussion | 147 | ||
| Dietrich Karl Fütterer: Geology and Geophysics of the Weddell Sea | 149 | ||
| I. Introductlon and Physiographic Setting | 149 | ||
| II. Plate Tectonic Setting | 151 | ||
| III. Age of the Weddell Sea Basin | 153 | ||
| IV. Geology of the Weddell Sea Embayment | 154 | ||
| V. Climatic and Sedimentary Evolution of the Weddell Sea | 158 | ||
| References | 162 | ||
| John C. Behrendt: Geophysical and Geological Research in Antarctica Related to the Assessment of Petroleum and Mineral Resources and Potential Environmental Hazards | 165 | ||
| Introduction | 165 | ||
| Examples of Resource Assessment and Environmental Hazards Types of Research | 169 | ||
| Dufek Intrusion | 169 | ||
| Petroleum Resources in the Ross Sea | 171 | ||
| Environmental Hazards, Ross Sea | 173 | ||
| Summary | 175 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 176 | ||
| Refrences | 176 | ||
| Franz Tessensohn: Geophysical and Geological Data in Antarctica – The Overlap Between Science and Prospection | 179 | ||
| General Discussion | 184 | ||
| Christopher Joyner: Antarctic Resources and Remote Sensing by Satellite: The Interplay of Technology, Mission and Law | 191 | ||
| I. Introduction | 191 | ||
| II. The Antarctic Resource Base | 192 | ||
| 1. The Continent | 192 | ||
| 2. The Southern Ocean | 193 | ||
| III. The Technology of Remote Sensing in Antarctica | 194 | ||
| 1. Techniques and Instrumentation | 194 | ||
| 2. Visible and Infrared Sensors | 195 | ||
| 3. Microwave Sensors | 196 | ||
| 4. Radar Sensors | 196 | ||
| IV. Application of Remote Sensing to Antarctica | 199 | ||
| 1. The Continent | 199 | ||
| a) Prospecting for Minerals | 199 | ||
| b) Determining Glaciological Conditions | 201 | ||
| 2. The Southern Ocean | 205 | ||
| a) Phytoplankton Determination | 205 | ||
| b) Polymetallic Nodule Location | 207 | ||
| V. International Law Governing Remote Sensing over Antarctica | 207 | ||
| 1. Sovereignty Issues and Remote Sensing | 208 | ||
| a) Freedom to Sense, with Open Dissemination | 210 | ||
| b) Prior Consent for Remote Sensing and Data Dissemination | 211 | ||
| 2. International Liability and Remote Sensing | 213 | ||
| 3. Concerns by Lesser Developed Countries over Remote Sensing | 216 | ||
| 4. Remote Sensing and the Antarctic Regime | 220 | ||
| a) The Antarctic Treaty System | 220 | ||
| b) The Common Heritage of Mankind Regime | 223 | ||
| VI. Conclusion | 225 | ||
| General Discussion | 226 | ||
| Richard Woolcott: The Legitimacy of the United Nations’ Challenge to the Antarctic Treaty | 229 | ||
| I. Background | 230 | ||
| II. Relationship with the United Nations Charter | 231 | ||
| III. The Present Challenge in the United Nations | 232 | ||
| IV. Practical Considerations | 234 | ||
| V. Need for Consensus | 234 | ||
| VI. Majorities in the General Assembly | 235 | ||
| VII. The UN Does Not Have to Deal with Everything | 238 | ||
| VIII. Conclusion | 240 | ||
| Abdul Koroma: Safeguarding the Interests of Mankind in the Use of Antarctica | 243 | ||
| Cristian Maquieira: The Question of Antarctica at the United Nations – The End of Consensus? | 253 | ||
| I | 253 | ||
| II | 254 | ||
| III | 264 | ||
| Conclusion | 269 | ||
| Mohamed Haron: The Issue of Antarctica – A Commentary | 271 | ||
| Panel Discussion | 277 | ||
| Nils Bølset | 277 | ||
| Vladimir Golitsyn | 278 | ||
| Ian Hendry | 286 | ||
| H. P. Rajan | 288 | ||
| F. Orrego Vicuña | 290 | ||
| Jost Delbrück | 292 | ||
| Finn Sollie: The Legitimacy of Concluding an Antarctic Mineral Resources Regime among the Antarctic Treaty Parties | 297 | ||
| I. Introductory Remarks | 297 | ||
| II. Approaches to the Problem | 299 | ||
| III. Law and Change | 300 | ||
| IV. Law in the Making | 300 | ||
| V. Need as Basis for Action | 301 | ||
| VI. From Science to Resources | 303 | ||
| VII. Attitudes | 305 | ||
| VIII. Legality | 306 | ||
| IX. Representation | 306 | ||
| X. Competence | 307 | ||
| Song Li: Comment: The Legitimacy of Negotiating an Antarctic Mineral Resources Convention among the Antarctic Treaty Parties | 308 | ||
| I. Legal Bases of the Antarctic Treaty Parties to Negotiate an Antarctic Mineral Resources Regime | 308 | ||
| II. Origin of the Question of Legitimacy | 312 | ||
| 1. lnfluence of the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea and the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea | 312 | ||
| 2. Inadequacies of the Antarctic Treaty System | 314 | ||
| III. How to Evaluate the Situation Faced by the Antarctic Treaty System | 315 | ||
| 1. The Right of Outsider States to Criticize the Treaty | 315 | ||
| 2. How to Evaluate the Situation | 316 | ||
| Arthur D. Watts: Lessons to be Learned from the Mineral Resources Negotiations | 319 | ||
| I. Nomadic Negotiation | 320 | ||
| II. Continuous Chairmanship | 322 | ||
| III. Informal Consultation | 323 | ||
| IV. Personal Proposals | 324 | ||
| V. Consensus | 326 | ||
| VI. Privacy | 327 | ||
| VII. Linguistic Restraint | 328 | ||
| VIII. Constructive Ignorance | 329 | ||
| IX. Procrastination: Present Principle | 330 | ||
| X. Conclusion | 330 | ||
| Nicolás Roncagliolo: Non-Consultative Parties: The Peruvian Approach to the Antarctic Treaty System and to Antarctic Mineral Resources | 333 | ||
| I. Peru's Approach to the Antarctic Treaty System | 333 | ||
| II. Peruvian Interests in the Antarctic | 334 | ||
| 1. Peruvian Presence and Real Participation in the Antarctic Treaty System | 335 | ||
| 2. The Preservation of International Peace and Security | 335 | ||
| 3. Protection of National Economy | 335 | ||
| 4. The Preservation of the Ecosystem and the Antarctic Environment | 336 | ||
| III. Evolution of the Antarctic System | 336 | ||
| IV. Non-Consultative Parties: Peru's Approach to the Antarctic Mineral Regime | 339 | ||
| Panel Discussion | 341 | ||
| Alberto Davérède | 342 | ||
| Abdul Koroma | 343 | ||
| Vladimir Golitsyn | 344 | ||
| Jorge Berguño | 346 | ||
| Scott Hajost | 348 | ||
| Rüdiger Wolfrum | 350 | ||
| General Discussion | 352 | ||
| Bo Johnson Theutenberg: Comment | 367 | ||
| Gerard J. Mangone: The Legal Status of Ice in International Law | 371 | ||
| I. Physical Aspects of Ice for Legal Consideration | 372 | ||
| 1. Pack Ice | 372 | ||
| 2. Fast Ice | 373 | ||
| 3. Shelf Ice | 373 | ||
| 4. Icebergs | 374 | ||
| 5. lnterstitial Ice | 374 | ||
| 6. Pingo Ice | 375 | ||
| 7. State Sovereignty Over Territory | 375 | ||
| II. Jurisdiction Over Ice | 377 | ||
| 1. Pack Ice | 377 | ||
| 2. Fast Ice | 379 | ||
| 3. Shelf Ice | 380 | ||
| 4. Icebergs | 382 | ||
| 5. Interstitial Ice | 384 | ||
| 6. Pingo Ice | 385 | ||
| III. Conclusion | 386 | ||
| Sudhir Chopra: Comment: The Legal Consequences of Antarctic Stations | 389 | ||
| I. The Consequences of Polar Stations under the Present Treaty System | 389 | ||
| II. The Legal Consequences of Antarctic Stations in the Absence of the Treaty | 391 | ||
| Francisco Orrego Vicuña: Air Traffic in Antarctica – The Need for a Legal Regime | 397 | ||
| I. The Growing Importance of Antarctic Aviation | 397 | ||
| 1. Main Uses of Antarctic Airspace | 398 | ||
| a. Trans-Antarctic Flights | 398 | ||
| b. Access to Antarctica | 400 | ||
| c. Intra-Antarctic Flights | 403 | ||
| II. Legal Issues Prior to the 1959 Antarctic Treaty | 403 | ||
| 1. The Commonwealth-French Negotiation of Air Rights | 404 | ||
| 2. The Underlying lssue of Territorial Claims | 406 | ||
| 3. Argentine-Chilean Discussion on Air Transit | 407 | ||
| III. Air Traffic under the Antarctic Treaty | 407 | ||
| 1. The 1959 Antarctic Treaty | 408 | ||
| 2. Article IV and the Question of Claims | 409 | ||
| IV. Developments under the Antarctic Treaty System | 411 | ||
| 1. Air Issues Relating to Resource Regimes | 413 | ||
| V. The Need for a Joint Legal Regime | 415 | ||
| 1. A Joint Regime Governing Trans-continental Flights over Antarctica | 415 | ||
| 2. A Joint Regime for the Access to Antarctica and Intra-Continental Air Traffic | 417 | ||
| 3. The Lessons from Beattie et al. | 420 | ||
| 4. Antarctic: A New Joint Regime | 422 | ||
| Roberto Puceiro Ripoll: Comment: Air Traffic in Antarctica | 424 | ||
| I. The Importance of Air Traffic in Antarctica | 424 | ||
| II. The Legal Regime of Overflight in the Antarctic Area | 426 | ||
| III. The Regime of Air Traffic Services in the Antarctic Zone | 429 | ||
| General Discussion | 432 | ||
| E. Imre Friedmann: Micro-organisms in the Antarctic Desert: A Model for Possible Life on Early Mars | 445 | ||
| General Discussion | 451 | ||
| Boleslaw Adam Boczek: The Legal Status of Visitors, Including Tourists, and Non-Governmental Expeditions in Antarctica | 455 | ||
| I. lntroduction | 455 | ||
| II. Tourism and Non-Govemmental Expeditions in Antarctica | 457 | ||
| 1. Tourism | 457 | ||
| 2. Non-Governmental Expeditions since 1961 | 460 | ||
| III. Terminological and Conceptual Problems | 462 | ||
| IV. Two Preliminary Issues: Third Parties and Jurisdiction | 465 | ||
| 1. Third Parties | 466 | ||
| 2. Jurisdiction | 469 | ||
| a. In General | 469 | ||
| b. Territorial Jurisdiction | 472 | ||
| c. Nationality Principle | 473 | ||
| d. Nationality: Ships | 474 | ||
| e. "Constructive" Nationality of Stations | 475 | ||
| V. The Sources of the Antarctic Regime Rules on Visitors and Non-Governmental Expeditions: An Overall Review | 476 | ||
| VI. Access to the Treaty Area and the Stations; Monttoring the Presence of Visitors (Information Exchange) | 479 | ||
| 1. Access to Antarctica; Information Exchange | 479 | ||
| 2. Visits to Stations | 481 | ||
| VII. Environmental Regulations | 483 | ||
| VIII. Assistance to Non-Govemmental Expeditions | 484 | ||
| IX. Conclusions | 488 | ||
| James N. Barnes/Peter J. Lipperman/Kelly Rigg: Waste Management in Antarctica | 491 | ||
| I. Introduction | 491 | ||
| II. Legal Framework | 493 | ||
| 1. Global | 493 | ||
| a) The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Dumping Convention) | 494 | ||
| b) The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL Convention) | 494 | ||
| c) The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS Convention) | 494 | ||
| 2. The Antarctic Treaty Systemt | 495 | ||
| a) The Consultative Process and the Code of Conduct | 495 | ||
| b) The Antarctic Seals Convention | 497 | ||
| c) The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) | 497 | ||
| d) The Minerals Negotiations | 498 | ||
| 3. U.S. Waste Management Policy | 499 | ||
| a) U.S. Policies Based on the Antarctic Treaty System | 500 | ||
| i) The Antarctic Conservation Act | 500 | ||
| ii) The Antarctic Marine Living Resources Act | 501 | ||
| iii) lmplementation of the Code of Conduct | 502 | ||
| b) Domestic Policies | 503 | ||
| i) The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) | 503 | ||
| ii) Executive Order 12114 | 504 | ||
| iii) The Ocean Dumping Act | 506 | ||
| III. The Waste Management Process | 506 | ||
| 1. The Regulation of Imported Materials | 507 | ||
| a) General Practice | 507 | ||
| b) U. S. Practice | 508 | ||
| 2. Regional Disposal - Dumping | 509 | ||
| a) Solid Waste Dumps | 509 | ||
| i) General Practice | 509 | ||
| ii) U. S. Practice | 510 | ||
| b) Ocean Dumping of Solid Waste | 513 | ||
| i) General Practice | 514 | ||
| ii) U. S. Practice | 514 | ||
| c) Sewage Disposal on Land and Sea | 515 | ||
| i) General Practice | 516 | ||
| ii) U.S. Practice | 517 | ||
| 3. Burning and Incineration (of Waste) | 518 | ||
| a) General Practice | 518 | ||
| b) U.S. Practice | 520 | ||
| 4. Retrograding of Waste | 521 | ||
| a) General Practice | 521 | ||
| b) U.S. Practice | 523 | ||
| IV. The Beginnings of a Model Program | 524 | ||
| 1. Observations | 524 | ||
| 2. Recommendations | 524 | ||
| 3. The Energy Linkage | 526 | ||
| Appendix | 528 | ||
| Roberto Puceiro Ripoll: Comment: Waste Disposal: Need for Further Regulation? | 530 | ||
| Sudhir Chopra: Comment | 536 | ||
| Panel Discussion | 538 | ||
| Patricia Birnie | 538 | ||
| Rahmatullah Khan | 540 | ||
| Ian Nicholson | 541 | ||
| Nicolas Mettra | 544 | ||
| Roger Wilson | 545 | ||
| General Discussion and Closing | 548 | ||
| Annex | 563 | ||
| Jörn Thiede/Leonard Johnson/Yngve Kristoffersen/Steven Blasco/Lawrence Mayer: Deep Sea Drilling in the Ice-Covered Arctic: Scientific, Environmental, Technical and Political Challenge, or The Call for C.O.N.D. | 563 | ||
| Abstract | 564 | ||
| I. Introduction: Why drill the deep Arctic for science? | 564 | ||
| II. On the Geological Properties of the Arctic Deep-Sea Floors | 566 | ||
| 1. Bathymetry of the Arctic Deep-Sea Floors | 566 | ||
| 2. Age and Nature of the Major Structural Units | 567 | ||
| 3. Evolution of the Paleoenvironment, Paleogeography and Paleobathymetry | 568 | ||
| III. Feasibility of Arctic Deep-Sea Drilling | 571 | ||
| 1. Technical Feasibility: Choice of Platforms, Drilling Techniques | 571 | ||
| 2. Scientific Feasibility: the Problem of Site Surveying; Drilling Targets | 574 | ||
| 3. Environmental Protection | 575 | ||
| 4. Financial Feasibility | 576 | ||
| 5. Political Feasibility | 576 | ||
| IV. Call for a Large International, Interdisciplinary Expedition to Explore the Nature of the Deep Arctic: C.O.N.D. - Centennial of F. Nansen's Drift 1893-1896 | 576 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 580 | ||
| List of Participants | 583 |